Articles Archive 

The evidence base suggests yoga techniques may support our sporting performance in a variety of ways including:

• Reduced muscle soreness.

• Correcting postural/muscular imbalances.

• Improved reaction time.

• Improved breath holding ability.

• Approximate replication of altitude training.

• Reduction of anxiety/improved self-confidence.

• Improved strength, endurance and skill based abilities.

The purpose of this article is to explore (in everyday language) the evidence base and make recommendations on how best to incorporate yoga into a sports person's training plan. We will discuss research studies and look at what elements of ‘yoga’ have been effectively used to support sporting performance.

Introductory Note

Before we begin it is important to understand that many popularised breathing methods involve fast or forced breathing techniques which can be both harmful and ineffective. Fast breathing tends to lead to a short-lived ‘high feeling’ due to hyper-ventilation and can also put excessive strain on the diaphragm and internal organs. A systematic review of research articles from 1988 - 2016 found that slow breathing techniques lead to beneficial improvements for the cardiovascular system and autonomic physiological processes. In contrast, fast breathing techniques have not been evidenced to produce beneficial effects (Jayawardena et al, 2020). Hence, the importance and need for evidence-based practise!

Potential Effects of Yoga Interventions Implemented During a Sports Person’s Training

Reduced Muscle Soreness

Boyle et al (2004) study supports the use of yoga within a sports persons training program as the researchers found just one session of yoga reduced peak muscle soreness following eccentric exercise.

A 2020 study by Shelvam et al found that combining yoga training into aerobic training led to a significant decrease in Creatine Kinase (CK) in the bloodstream compared to aerobic training on its own. As increased CK in the bloodstream is a primary sign of muscle damage and over-use, this is strong evidence for the use of yoga within a sports persons training plan as a method to enhance recovery and reduce overall muscle damage.

Helpful for Correcting Muscle Imbalances

In many sports muscle imbalances occur due to dominant use of one side of the body or one chain of muscles. Nikolay et al (2020) highlight yoga's abilities to re-balance an athlete's body and allow an athlete to further develop control over their bodies movements. Nikolay et al emphasize the importance of tailoring the yoga postures to the athletes individual needs and empowering them in managing their own yoga practise.

Improved Reaction Time and Breath Holding Capacity

Bera et al (2021) study supports the use of pranayama practises to improve both breath holding capacity and reaction time off the mark in a sample of swimmers. To achieve these improvements, Bera et al (2021) ustilied 20-25 rounds of traditional pranayama practises including kapalbhati, ujjayi, anuloma violma and bhastrika all including breath retention (kumbhaka) followed by shavasana and OM chanting. This was practised for 45 minutes in the morning 6 days a week, within the swimmers training schedule.

Approximate Replication of Altitude Training

Of importance Bera et al (2021) draw attention to the fact that breath holding, within slow and deep breathing actually leads to oxygen conserving physiological adaptations. These include a slower than normal heartbeat (bradycardia) and improved blood flow to the heart and brain due to reduced blood flow to the extremities (peripheral vasoconstriction). Essentially, pranayama practises provide a similar response to altitude training (Jawahar et al 2010) and apnea training (Delahoche et al 2005), whilst also refreshing air throughout all the lobes of the lungs which are often not accessed within ‘normal’ breathing patterns (Bijlani, 2004).

Improved Physical Strength, Endurance and Skill-Based Abilities

Jawahar et al (2010) found pranayama practises provided a similar improvement as replicating high altitude conditions (hypoxia training) achieved, in respect to the performance of Soccer players. The improvements were found within players speed, power, endurance, agility, dribbling, passing and shooting. Albeit, it should be noted hypoxia training generally led to greater improvements. None-the-less, 35 - 45 minute pranayama practises adopted 3 times a week for 12 weeks generated significantly improved scores on these abilities in comparison to just normal soccer training.

Regarding sport specific skills, Jean-Francois et al (2015) also found improvements in Speed Ice Skaters postural skills and skating technique following a yoga intervention especially regarding awareness of individual movements of their hips. Similar improvements in skill performance following a yoga intervention has been found within a sample of handball players (Yokesh 2019). Interestingly, yoga intervention has also been shown to improve grip strength among Kabaddi players to a higher degree than aerobic exercise (Palanisamy et al, 2020).

One mechanism through which pranayama may improve athletic strength and skill, is noted by La Padula et al (2020). In a study involving microsurgeons, the researchers found that when pranayama was practised with an erect spine and an actively controlled abdominal wall, micro-tremors in the surgeons were reduced. This suggests that pranayama increases core stability and coordination.

Considerations when utilising pranayama to approximate altitude training.

Jawahar et al (2010) state that studies into hypoxia suggest training at low oxygen levels generates 5 main adaptations when exposure is gradual over an extended period of time.

1. Increased pulmonary ventilation.

2. Higher hemoglobin levels.

3. Improved diffusion through the lungs.

4. Enhanced vascularity in the muscle tissues.

5. Enhanced ability to utilise oxygen in low partial pressures.

Each of these adaptations can be seen as beneficial to a sports person looking to improve the body's efficiency. However, importance should be given to the words ‘gradual’ and ‘over an extended period of time’. If we look at other definitions of hypoxia, hypoxia is also considered an acute medical condition which may be caused by choking/drowning, altitude exposure, anemia, lung disease and prolonged cold exposure (amongst others). Hypoxia as an uncontrolled medical condition is characterised by confusion, behaviour changes, dizziness and drowsiness (amongst others).

Hence, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika’s often quoted warning regarding pranayama practises:

“As one can gradually tame a lion, an elephant or a tiger, prana should be slowly controlled, otherwise, it can cause harm to the sadhaka (yogi): A judicious practise of pranayama will alleviate all the ailments. An improper practise, on the contrary gives rise to all the diseases: For success, one should inhale, retain and exhale in a very judicious manner” [Chapter 4 Verses 23:24:26]

The above may seem ‘off putting’ but with care, attention and guidance from an experienced teacher, pranayama can be accessible and rewarding for the majority of people.

A literature review by Saoji et al (2019), found that current research suggests that yogic breathing is safe when practised under guidance of an experienced yoga teacher. The research, Saoji et al (2019) considered academically rigorous, suggests that gentle and well-guided pranayama had positive effects on cognitive, physiological, respiratory and metabolic functioning for healthy people.

Improved Mental Health

For mental health, Quadri et al (2020), found that sports students who were practising yoga regularly self-reported greater levels of mental health than sports students who were not practising yoga regularly. Although, arguably, better mental health could have been a factor for regularly practising yoga (rather than yoga causing better mental health), this study does suggest that practising yoga assists sports students to maintain their mental wellbeing while under pressure to study and perform.

Reduction of Anxiety and Improved Self-Confidence

Lona (2020) found that yoga and meditation sessions (3 per week for 12 weeks) were effective in reducing cognitive anxiety (e.g. negative thoughts), somatic anxiety (e.g. physical feelings, butterflies/stomach aches) and also improving self confidence, in Boxing, Judo, Hockey and Football players.

One yoga session a week can improve Heart Rate Variability

Frank et al (2020) found, after a 10 week yoga intervention, in which once a week, one sports lesson was replaced by a yoga lesson, secondary school children significantly increased their heart rate variability, as measured by a 24 hour ECG. Increased heart rate variability means it was easier for the children to access their parasympathetic nervous system (accessed at a low heart rate) and so regulate their own nervous reactions to ‘stress’. The main implication for sporting performance here is that including just one session of yoga a week can make a significant difference to the ability to mediate one's own stress levels.

What yoga practices were included in Frank et al’s (2020) study?

Each yoga class was structured as follows:

• Welcome and feedback on the last session - 5 minutes

• Introduction and awareness exercises - 10 minutes

• Warm-up - 10 minutes

• More intensive asana practice - 20 minutes

• Floor exercises and transition to relaxation - 15 minutes

• Light pranayama sitting exercises - 5 minutes

• Silent meditation while sitting - 5 minutes

• Feedback - 5 minutes

The students were also encouraged to practice yoga at home.

Low Impact Stretching is More Effective For Stress Reduction than Relaxation Practises

In yoga, it is theorised that muscles hold emotional memories related to past stressful experiences, and so the yoga postures are designed to help relieve these. In practise this suggests that yoga postures facilitate sustainable stress reduction. The evidence base supports this; for example, Corey et al (2014), found a 6 month low-impact stretching intervention led to significantly reduced thoughts about stress alongside reduced cortisol levels. No improvements were found in a purely restorative yoga intervention focusing upon relaxation.This study strongly supports the use of asana (the physical postures) to help a person reduce stress and feel more confident. However, it should be noted Corey et al’s study sampled participants with metabolic syndrome so this may not be generalisable to the general population.

Meditation and Pranayama Can Mediate Stress and Enhance Sports Performance at an Elite Level.

Meditation and pranayama practises (which are not just about relaxation) have also been found effective at mediating stress and enhancing sporting performance. For example; Khanna et al (2011) found a 4 week mindfulness meditation therapy intervention significantly reduced pre competition stress and enhanced performance (accuracy) in 110 elite level pistol shooters.

Khanna et al’s (2011) intervention involved 20 minutes of yoga 6 days a week. This included 3 minutes of shavasana before a breathing practice aiming at a rate of 5 breaths per minute for 4 minutes, then a mindfulness body scan (focusing attention on each joint in turn without labelling any sensations as positive or negative). Then repeating the breathing practise and ending with shavasana.

The breathing practise of slowing the breath to 5 breaths per minute, is especially effective for reducing anxiety when combined with abdominal breathing which stimulates the vagus nerve leading to a greater relax and recover response (the parasympathetic nervous system). Although not included in Khanna et al’s study, the addition of emphasising the exhalation e.g. working towards an exhale double the length of the inhale, can further help to activate the relax and recover response (Porges, 2011; Birch and Mason 2018).

To measure ‘pre competition stress’ salivary cortisol levels were measured (cortisol is a hormone which affects the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis causing a ‘stress’ response). The ability of Yoga to improve stress indicators including cortisol, blood pressure and heart rate is also supported by more recent studies (Pascoe et al, 2017 and Park et al, 2015).

To explain the enhanced performance of the elite level pistol shooters, Khanna et al (2011) refer to Feng et al’s (2007) study into Integrative-Body-Mind-Training (IBMT). Feng et al (2007) found meditation led to improved attentional processing, improved mood, improved immune function and also lower cortisol levels in the short term. All of which could help explain the enhanced performance of the elite level pistol shooter.

Recommendations For Yoga Interventions Within A Sports Persons Training Plan

Holistic Yoga Exercises

The above research suggests the combined use of asana (physical postures), pranayama (yogic breathing/breath retention) and meditation exercises will likely benefit a sports person's performance, recovery and anxiety levels. It is recommended that a sports person be guided by an experienced yoga teacher who can provide them with timely feedback during the session while tailoring the exercises to them as an individual.

Frequency

• At least once a week (including low-impact stretching) for anxiety/stress reduction

• Likely at least 3-5 times a week for 35-45 minutes as a means to approximate altitude/hypoxia training.

• Within or around each exercise session as a means to reduce muscular soreness and damage.

• 3- 6 times a week to potentially see sports specific skill improvements and improved muscular imbalances.

Pranayama Practises

Should be introduced steadily and incorporated gradually into a sports persons training plan. The guidance of an experienced teacher is strongly recommended to observe and provide individualised advice.

References/Bibliography

Beatie et al (2011). Development and validation of a trait measure of robustness of self-confidence. Psychology of Sports and Exercise, 12 (2), pp 184 - 191.

Bera T et al (2017). Influence of pranayama on breath holding capacity and reaction time of junior state level elite swimmers. Yoga Mimamsa [serial online cited 2021 May 20] 49, (63-7). Available from: https://www.ym-kdham.in/text.asp?2017/49/2/63/220187

Bijlani, R L (2004). The yogic practices: asanas, pranayamas and kriyas. In understanding Medical Physiology, 3rd ed, pp 883 - 889. New Delhi India. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers.

Birch, K and Mason, H (2018). Yoga for mental health. Handspring publishing.United Kingdom.

Boyle, C A et al (2004). The effects of yoga training and a single bout of yoga on delayed onset muscle soreness in the lower extremity. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18, 723-9.

Brunelle J F (2015). Influences of a yoga intervention on the postural skills of the Italian short track speed skating team. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 6, pp 23-35

Corey, S M (2014). Effect of restorative yoga vs. stretching on diurnal cortisol dynamics and psychosocial outcomes in individuals with the metabolic syndrome: The PRYSMS randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 49, pp 260-271.

Delahoche, J et al (2005) Arterial oxygen saturation and heart rate variation during breath-holding: Comparison between breath-hold divers and controls. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26 (3), pp. 177-181.

Eggleston, M B., Lockyer, J R & Polsgrove J M (2016). Impact of 10-weeks of yoga practice on flexibility and balance of college athletes. International Journal of Yoga, 9 (1), pp 27-32.

Feng, S et al (2007). Short-term meditation training improves attention and self regulation. PNAS, 104, pp 17152 - 17156.

Frank J et al. (2020) Yoga in school sports improves functioning of autonomic nervous system in young adults: A non-randomized controlled pilot study. PLoS ONE, 15 (4).

Hatha Yoga Pradipika with 10 chapters of Svatmarama with Yogaprakasika (2017). Edited Dr M. L Gharote & Dr Parmal Devnath. The Lonavla Yoga Institute (India).

Jawahar, C A & Vijayaregunathan, N, (2010). Effect of hypoxic training and Pranayama practices on selected biomotor variables and soccer performances among college soccer players. Department of Physical Education and Yoga Centre. Available at http://hdl.handle.net/10603/5621

Jayawardena R et al (2020). Exploring the therapeutic benefits of pranayama (yogic breathing): a systematic review. International Journal of Yoga, 13 (2), pp 99-110.

Khanna, G L., Shaji, J & Verma, S K (2011). The effect of mindfulness meditation on HPA-axis in pre-competition stress in sports performance of elite shooters. National Journal Of International Research In Medicine, 2 (3), pp 2230 - 9969.

La Padula S et al (2020). Yoga breathing exercises (pranayama) decrease hand micro tremor in young microsurgeons.Towards a new paradigm in surgery. Plastic Reconstruction Surgery.

Lona, B K (2020). A study on effect of yoga and cyclic meditation on selected psychological variables among major games and martial arts. Journal of Shaghai Jiatong University, 16 (9).

Nikolay B (2020). Use of yoga elements in the training of marital arts. Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques, 8 (2) pp 739 - 743.

Palanisamy et al (2020). Influence of yogic practises and aerobic training on grip strength among kabaddhi players. Our Heritage, 68 (30) pp 584.

Pascoe, M C., Thompson, D R & Ski, C F (2017). Yoga, mindfulness-based stress reduction and stress-related physiological measures: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 86, pp 152–168.

Porges et al (2011). The early development of the autonomic nervous system provides a neural platform for social behaviour. A polyvagal perspective. Infant and Child Development, 20 (1), 106-118.

Quadri J S & Kharat K A (2020). Influence of yoga on mental health of sports students. International conference on enhancing skills in physical education and sport science. Rubicon Publications, London.

Riley, K.E & Park, C.L (2015). How does yoga reduce stress? A systematic review of mechanisms of change and guide to future inquiry. Health Psychology, 9, pp 379–396.

Saoji A A., Raghavendra B R & Manjunath NK (2017). Effects of yogic breath regulation: A narrative review of scientific evidence. Journal of Ayuverda and Integrative Medicine, 10 (1) pp 50 - 58.

Shelvam V A (2020). Effect of isolated and combined training of aerobic and yoga on creatine kinase among sports women. International Journal of Pharmacological Nerological Disease, 26 (10) pp 218 - 222.

Yokesh, T P (2019). Effects of skill training with and without yogic practices on self confidence among handball players. Our Heritage, 67 (8) pp 306.

“Yoga can facilitate positive embodiment including enhanced competence, self-efficacy and agency (Piran, 2016).”

For yoga teachers and students alike.

This is a research based article written in everyday language (mostly) so that you can understand the evidence for how yoga works; by gradually enhancing our neurological, physiological, cognitive and emotional processes, allowing us to sustain greater feelings of wellbeing throughout everyday life.

Expect up to date research that helps guide how we can enhance the effectiveness of our yoga sessions, including factors that we can consider in our practise to enhance our feelings of wellbeing.

Introduction

The evidence base supporting yoga’s potential to improve our everyday physical and mental wellbeing is rapidly expanding. This is fortunate, since throughout the Covid 19 pandemic public interest in yoga for managing anxiety and depression has significantly increased (Ashish et al 2021) while healthcare professionals have become increasingly willing to combine yoga interventions within their standard evidence based practise due to the positive impact of yoga techniques (Atler et al 2020, Berlowitz 2020).

How does yoga work?

On a neurological level, Yoga is increasingly understood as a practise that can help balance our nervous systems (Birch and Mason, 2018). There are two complementary branches of our autonomic nervous system, which when working smoothly allow a person to mobilise energy for action (via the sympathetic nervous system) or allow a person to rest, relax and recover (via the parasympathetic nervous system). Chalmers et al (2014) established that the majority of mental health conditions arise when one nervous system is overactive and the other is underactive. This leads to feelings of dis-ease or stress in everyday life.

Then on a physiological level, yoga practices have been evidenced to change physiological factors associated with stress including; reducing hematic cortisol levels, systolic blood pressure and heart rate (Riley et al, 2015 and Pascoe et al, 2017). There is a concept called heart rate variability (HRV), which basically refers to the natural increase of the heart rate on the inhale and decrease of the heart rate on the exhale. Yoga techniques help us develop comfort at different heart rates so that we can efficiently use our energy for action when the heart rate increases, e.g. in potentially stressful situations, and then we can relax and recover afterwards allowing the heart rate to slow back down. Interestingly, this physiological flexibility also relates to cognitive/mental flexibility (Birch and Mason, 2018).

On a cognitive and emotional level, yoga practises can support us to ‘embody’, in the present moment, positive emotions, thoughts and experiences (Cook-Cottone & Douglass, 2017, Impett et al 2006; Mahlo & Tiggemann, 2016). With regular practise, experiencing these feelings on the mat becomes natural and they translate into everyday life, allowing a yoga practitioner to feel empowered, perceiving that they have the strength, ability and independence to perform their everyday occupations. This is known as ‘embodiment’ (Piran 2019).

Kiken et al (2015) found regularly experiencing embodied mindfulness during a meditation program led to decreased feelings of distress and increased feelings of being present,‘embodied,’ in the moment during everyday life. The key here was an initial regular practise over 8-weeks. For yoga students this suggests an initial period of more intense and supervised practise would be useful to experience embodied feelings on the mat. So what are these ‘embodied’ feelings and practises?

Yoga on the mat leads to ‘embodied’ practises off the mat.

Cook-Cottone & Guyker (2018) identify that ‘embodied practises’ in everyday life, which feel natural and spontaneous, may arise from experiencing embodiment during yoga practises on the mat. These ‘embodied practises’ include;

• Improved physical care of the body.

• Improved self-compassion

• Forming more supportive relationship

• Forming a more structured and comfortable lifestyle and living environment

• Calm awareness of thoughts and experiences

• Mindful ability to consciously relax and recover

Cox et al (2020) elaborate on 2 further embodied practises that may arise from regular feelings of embodiment during yoga practise.

• Attuned exercise: Calogero et al (2019) define attuned exercise as the ability to cultivate joy, mindful attention, compassion, acceptance and a responsive connection to the body through movement. Attuned exercise can be viewed as the basis of physical and psychological longevity.

• Intuitive eating: the ability to feel connected and trust in the body's own internal feelings of hunger and satiety, while eating for physical rather than emotional reasons. [Note intuitive eating occurs within a flexible and non-restrictive approach].

From the subjective experiences in my own life, alongside students and teachers I have worked with, there are many real life examples for these embodied practises. Of personal relevance, yoga allowed me to sustainably work though and overcome orthorexia nervosa: the disordered eating and exercise habits that occured with it and the anxious, unconstructive relationships that developed between myself and my own mind. These lived-experiences form subjective evidence and insight into how yoga facilitates positive embodiment on the mat which can literally translate to our everyday lives, sometimes even without our conscious awareness at the time.

However, as a yoga teacher and student, it is useful to understand the mechanisms behind how yoga works to help ensure our own practise and teaching is based upon objective evidence based research, and not just ‘personal experiences’.

How as Yoga Teachers can we help ensure yoga works!

Simply teaching ‘yoga’ techniques may not be enough, as you are likely aware, there are many variables which could impact how students respond and interpret instructions, guidance, postures and techniques. Cox et al (2020) identify factors which can impact upon the effectiveness of yoga practises, which I have expanded upon below. Each should be given due consideration and each would be worthy of their own article.

• Language used: for cues and in general conversation (including body language and non-verbal cues).

• Context of the class: what is the purpose - does the teaching match up with expectations.

• The class environment: including clothing, space, mirrors, lighting, warmth.

• The focus of the class: does the class encourage students to be internally mindful and aware or is the class all about fitness and postures?

• Students individual variables: including, social/cultural identities, personal backgrounds, personality and motivational types, physical limitations/abilities, gender and body type.

Fortunately, Cox et al 2020, provides a model for understanding the components of yoga interventions/classes, which actually enhance feelings of wellbeing leading to longer term positivity in everyday life. This provides a useful framework for yoga teachers and therapists to work from. Below I summarise in everyday language the 8 components and provide additional commentary on them.

The 8 mechanisms by which yoga may facilitate wellbeing and positive embodiment as listed by Cox et al (2020) are:

• Reduced Self-Objectification and Body Surveillance

• Mindfulness

• Self-Compassion

• Body Appreciation

• Body Image Flexibility

• Self Confidence

• Joyful Immersion and Flow

• Connection to Pleasure and Desire

To visit Cox et al’s (2020) original journal article please follow this link: A conceptual model describing mechanisms for how yoga practice may support positive embodiment

1. Reduced self-objectification and body surveillance

Self-objectification means viewing the body as an object without accounting for internal experiences (Piran 2017). Yoga likely directs our attention inwards and reduces our external focus (Impett et al 2006). Self-objectification, and the preoccupation with external looks, is a consequence of cultural upbringing. This promotes habitual body surveillance, a fairly constant monitoring of what we look like or how we act. Fredrickson & Roberts (1997) state this is a key contributor to anxiety, depression and disordered eating.

Many yoga techniques help us avoid self-objectification. For example yoga postures are designed to steadily bring our awareness to an internal focus so that we can maintain a steady focus and not be distracted by the outside world or even our bodies own external responses. For example, students are asked to link the breath with the movement and hold postures for x number of breaths. With practise students are encouraged to allow the breath to become increasingly subtle and soft naturally drawing the attention inwards. Keeping a soft steady gaze at a given point in each pose aids this process.

Yoga teachers, with well considered verbal cues, can facilitate a student to explore and discover their own internal landscape within the safe space of the yoga mat. For example, asking students to feel the ‘weight’ of the body grounding down in tree pose, would not be useful for anyone anxious around their weight. This cue would become an external distraction. Instead, asking students to notice the texture of the mat on their feet and inviting them to find the action of pushing the feet into the ground, would likely have a more positive outcome for everyone.

2. Mindfulness

A study by French et al (2016) concluded that the more mindful a student is of the physical experiences during yoga, the greater increase in self-worth they experience over an 8-week intervention. Mindfulness refers to the process of honest self-observation, meeting oneself where you are actually at, and accepting this, to intelligently move forwards.

Mindfulness is facilitated by yoga techniques that bring students into the present moment. Each of the 8-limbs of traditional ashtanga yoga work to bring us to the present moment. With practise a student can become more established and learn simple techniques e.g. bringing the awareness to the breath, that maintains awareness within the present moment, so that it is all the easier to observe one's own actions and thoughts and intelligently choose how to act and think.

3. Self compassion

Yoga participation has been reliably found to increase self-compassion (Braun et al 2012, Cox et al 2019, Gard et al 2012). Further to this, self-compassion is thought to be a mechanism explaining how yoga may help to reduce stress (Gard et al 2012).

It is useful to refer to Crew et al’s (2016) 3 components of self-compassion.

1. Mindfulness: the ability to observe and remain with uncomfortable thoughts and emotions in order to find balance and clarity.

2. Self-Kindness: the ability to generate positive thoughts towards one’s own self.

3. Common Humanity: understanding that negative experiences are shared and also occur to other people, so that feelings of isolation and suffering can be reduced.

Within a yoga session, the teacher aims to hold a ‘safe space’ in which students can feel comfortable to be themselves and explore their own body and mind. The teacher acts as a guide to the student and may often be viewed as a role model, a friend or even like family. Compassion, is arguably, essential for the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions in health care, acting as the foundation which allows collaboration between the person and the therapist (Finlay-Jones 2017). For the yoga teacher, this should be no surprise as the first limb of Yoga emphasises ‘Ahimsa’ a.k.a compassion as a first step!

Being aware of the 3 components of compassion can help teachers facilitate feelings of self-compassion:

• Providing encouragement to reside within postures or stay with an exercise may be more useful to students if the purpose of this is explained to students first, namely to give themselves the time to become ‘mindful’ and find balance or clarity within the thoughts and feelings that may arise.

• Explaining methods to generate positive thoughts and feelings, then exploring these with students in an interactive manner, may be more effective and empowering than simply instructing a student to think positively.

• If appropriate, inviting the sharing of common experiences within the class may help consol students who are experiencing negativity in their lives. Likewise, encouraging open discussion regarding experiences of postures or practising yoga techniques, may facilitate a feeling of ‘common humanity’: a.k.a ‘keeping it real’.

4. Body Appreciation

85% of 542 students who practised yoga reported that yoga had enhanced their body appreciation (Park et al, 2016). Body appreciation is different to body satisfaction. Body appreciation refers to the internal feelings that the body is serving its role and purpose well. A person can still seek to improve the body while being simultaneously content with its current state.

Yoga sessions may provide a conducive environment for learning to accept, respect and appreciate the body for how it actually is. Alleva et al (2017) note these feelings towards the body are independent of how the body looks or functions. It should be noted that research studies do not always support yoga being conducive to improving body appreciation. For this reason it is useful to refer to Halliwell et al’s (2019) study which specifically tailored yoga sessions to facilitate body appreciation.

Halliwell et al (2019) utilised themes to enhance body appreciation in yoga sessions, which lead to self-reported feelings of body appreciation after the sessions and 4 weeks later. These themes included:

• Connection to the body.

• Gratitude and appreciation of body function.

• Body acceptance.

• Developing respect and self-care towards the body.

For yoga teachers, consideration should be given to how these themes can be woven into lessons in a way that is sensitive and relevant for students. Discussing the themes in class, exploring how the yoga techniques may help develop these different aspects of body appreciation, may empower students to understand how yoga can work for them.

5. Body Image Flexibility

Body image flexibility, allows the myriad of thoughts and feelings, both comfortable and uncomfortable, to be embraced rather than avoided. This enables intelligent action to be taken in the moment, to alleviate discomfort or stagnation.

Sandoz et al (2019) identifies 6 skills that enhance body image flexibility:

• Noticing the body in the present moment.

• Acceptance of the body’s experiences in comfort and discomfort

• Cognitive defusion (observing thoughts regarding the body without them becoming the focus of attention)

• Recognizing the self as more than what the body experiences.

• Valuing a purpose that guides the body's actions in comfort and discomfort.

• Committed action/behaviour in line with the valued purpose, even in times of perceived discomfort.

The above skills can be easily seen at play in yoga postures which tend to generate a potentially uncomfortable stretch response. Provided a student is not too ambitious, the attention is first drawn to the body ‘stretching’ in the present moment, this sensation can then be accepted, the attention can then be diverted (cognitive defusion) to the breath and gaze point, then a student can realise the physical body is not defining their experience. This gives the opportunity for a student to value and realise the purpose of yoga postures bringing their awareness to the present moment and allowing them to feel at ease even in ‘discomfort’. Then motivation and commitment can be built to explore yoga, their own personality and abilities, further.

Of note, the guidance of an experienced teacher is highly recommended when committing to a course of action that leads the student through discomfort (outside their current comfort zone). The teacher can guide the student to remain safe and aware while exploring their potential in order to avoid injury or sustained discomfort.

6. Self-Confidence

Cox et al (2019) state yoga teachers should seek to find variations on poses that work for each person and encourage students to refer to their own internal cues to find just the right challenge for them. This approach can then lead to enhanced feelings of physical self-worth (Cole et al, 2016).

However, yoga teachers and students should note that some yoga students in Neumark-Sztainer et al’s (2018) study, reported that practising yoga created more social comparison and negative self-talk about their own body. So, yoga teachers must take care to avoid presenting any one way of doing things as the ‘correct or only way’.

‘Vinyasa Krama’ is the traditional method of yoga passed down from Shri, T Krishnamacharya. ‘Vinyasa Krama’ is the art of intelligently sequencing to best suit the individual. This approach to teaching yoga guides the student to safely explore and expand their comfort zone in order to make steady progress. Finding just the right challenge, provides feelings of achievements, whilst motivating self-development. This approach, although not referred to as ‘Vinyasa Krama’ is also the foundation of Occupational Therapy interventions, in which considered grading and analysis of the activity in question allows just the right challenge to be explored with the service-user.

7. Joyful Immersion and Flow

Flow is defined by Csikszentmihalyi et al (2014) as total absorption in a task or activity with a sense of effortless control, high level concentration and performance. Joyful immersion often coincides with flow, occurring when an activity provides inherent and intrinsic rewards, e.g. enjoyment and satisfaction throughout a person's participation in it.

For flow to be more likely in a yoga session 3 factors should be accounted for:

1. Student’s abilities match up with their perception of the challenge presented to them.

2. Clear goals should be set beforehand.

3. Feedback from the teacher should be unambiguous and provided immediately.

For the yoga teacher these 3 points can be used as guidelines when structuring a yoga class. For example:

• Ensuring the level of the class matches up with the level of the students.

• Setting clear goals at the start of the class and checking the class wishes to work towards them.

• Providing timely and well considered feedback on students performance during the class (helping students avoid mentally backtracking or being distracted by untimely feedback/comments during the class).

Side Note: The 8-limbs of yoga are traditionally viewed as a wheel. Practise of any one of them can set the wheel in motion and may lead to the 7th limb called Dhyana or Meditation occuring. I believe Meditation is synonymous with ‘Flow’ as meditation is characterised by effortless and spontaneous concentration upon the task at hand with awareness of the thought processes involved within it.

Then, the 8th limb of Samadhi, may occur in which a person becomes fully absorbed in the object of concentration and is no longer aware of their own self. This is often translated as self-absorption so could be considered a ‘flow’ state. However this stage in traditional yoga is no longer accompanied by ‘physical’ performance at the level of the body or mental awareness of the thought processes. Although, initial stages of Samadhi may be glimpsed on an everyday level e.g. in a moment of awe.

8. Connection to Desire and Pleasure

Yoga can help students embody feelings of pleasure and feel motivated to explore their potential further during a class. Research supports this claim and holds that participation in yoga can lead to sustained changes in both positive and negative emotions and feelings (Bershadsky et al, 2014, Halliwell et al, 2019 and Impett et al, 2006). Although care should be taken when generalising from the aforementioned studies, the evidence does suggest that through yoga, positive affect can be enhanced, namely energy levels and motivation, while negative affect can be reduced, namely feelings of tiredness and tension.

From a neuroscience perspective, Gard et al (2015) found that yoga practitioners developed higher connectivity between the caudate and the higher cortical structures including the prefrontal cortex, than non-practitioners. In everyday terms this means, yoga practitioners can more easily access the brains networks that allow movement/actions to be initiated or stopped. Schmalz et al (2015) adds to this that this ability not only relates to physical movements but also types of thinking. This means, through practising yoga, both physical and mental flexibility and adaptability can be developed: we can learn to more easily (using less energy) initiate or stop our actions while choosing how we think about situations.

Personally I think the above is quite remarkable and helps explain why yoga has been passed down through the generations as a method of self-transformation! There is a lot more neuroscience evidence for how yoga works than just the above but exploring this goes beyond the scope of this article.

Concluding Remarks

The above research (amongst many other studies not discussed here), strongly supports the intelligent use of yoga as a holistic approach to wellbeing. Providing evidence that yoga practises can over time change our neurological, physiological, cognitive and emotional processes allowing us to sustain enhanced feelings of wellbeing throughout everyday life.

References:

Alleva, J. M et al. (2017). The functionality appreciation scale (FAS): Development and psychometric evaluation in US community women and men. Body Image, 23, pp. 28–44.

Atler et al (2020). Merging yoga and OT for parkinson’s disease: preliminary outcomes. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 74.

Ashish, Jindal H et al (2021). Global change in interest toward yoga for mental health ailments during coronavirus disease-19 pandemic: A google trend analysis. International Journal of Yoga 14 (2) pp 109-118.

Berlowitz et al (2020). Changes in perceived stress after yoga, physical therapy and education interventions for chronic lower back pain: a secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Pain Medicine 21 (10) pp. 2529 - 2537.

Bershadsky, S et al (2014). The effect of prenatal hatha yoga on affect, cortisol, and depressive symptoms. Complementary Theories in Clinical Practice, 20 (2) pp 106–113.

Braun, T et al (2012). Psychological well-being, health behaviors,

and weight loss among participants in a residential, Kripalu yoga-based weight loss

program. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 22 (1) pp 9–22.

Birch, K and Mason, H (2018). Yoga for mental health. Handspring publishing.United Kingdom.

Calogero, R. M et al (2019). Attunement with exercise. In T. L. Tylka & N. Piran (Eds.), Handbook of positive body image and embodiment: Constructs, protective factors, and interventions. Oxford University Press.

Chalmers, J. Quintana, D., Abbott, M & Kemp A (2014). Anxiety disorders are associated with reduced heart rate variability: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5.

Cook-Cottone, C & Douglass, L. L. (2017). Yoga communities and eating disorders: creating safe space for positive embodiment. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 27(1), pp. 87–93.

Cook-Cottone, C. P., & Guyker, W. M. (2018). The development and validation of the

mindful self-care scale (MSCS): An assessment of practices that support positive embodiment. Mindfulness, 9 (1), 161–175.

Cox, A. E et al. (2016). The role of state mindfulness during yoga in predicting self-objectification and reasons for exercise. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22 (1) pp 321–327.

Cox A. E & Tylka T. L (2020) A conceptual model describing mechanisms for how yoga practice may support positive embodiment, Eating Disorders, 28 (4) pp.376-399.

Crews, D. A., Stolz-Newton, M., & Grant, N. S. (2016). The use of yoga to build

self-compassion as a healing method for survivors of sexual violence. Journal of Religion

and Spirituality in Social Work, 35 (3) pp. 139–156.

Finlay‐ Jones, A L. (2017). Compassion in clinical practise: current applications and new directions, Clinical Psychologist, 21 (2) pp. 59-61.

Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21 (2), pp. 173–206.

French, B. F et al (2016). Validity evidence for the state mindfulness scale for physical activity. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 20 (1), pp 38 - 49.

Gard, T et al (2012). Effects of a yoga-based intervention for young adults on quality of life and perceived stress: The potential mediating roles of mindfulness and self-compassion. Journal of Positive Psychology, 7 (3), pp. 165–175.

Gard, T et al (2015). Greater widespread functional connectivity of the caudate in older adults who practise kripalu yoga and vipassana meditation than in controls. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, pp 137.

Impett, E. A et al (2006). Minding the body: Yoga, embodiment, and well-being. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 3 (4) pp 39–48.

Kiken, L. G et al (2015). From a state to a trait: Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 41–46.

Mahlo, L & Tiggemann, M (2016). Yoga and positive body image: A test of the embodiment model. Body Image, 18, 135–142.

Riley, K.E & Park, C.L (2015). How does yoga reduce stress? A systematic review of mechanisms of change and guide to future inquiry. Health Psychology Review, 9 pp 379–396.

Park, C. L (2016). Practitioners’ perceptions of yoga’s positive and negative effects: Results of a national United States survey. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 20 (2), 270–279.

Pascoe, M.C, Thompson, D.R & Ski, C.F (2017). Yoga, mindfulness-based stress reduction and stress-related physiological measures: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 86, pp. 152–168

Piran, N. (2016). Embodied possibilities and disruptions: The emergence of the experience of embodiment construct from qualitative studies with girls and women. Body Image, 18, 43–60.

Piran, N. (2019). The experience of embodiment construct: Reflecting the quality of embodied lives. In T. L. Tylka & N. Piran (Eds.), Handbook of positive body image and embodiment: Constructs, protective factors, and interventions. Oxford University Press.

Sandoz, E. K et al (2019). Body image flexibility. In T. L. Tylka & N. Piran (Eds.), Handbook of positive body image and embodiment: Constructs, protective factors, and interventions. Oxford University Press.

Schmalzl, L., Powers, C & Henje Blom, E (2015). Neurophysiological and neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the effects of yoga-based practises: towards a comprehensive theoretical framework. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, pp 235.

Yoga and Mindfulness as Practical Neuroscience

The purpose of this article is to introduce you (in everyday language as much as possible) to the basic neuroscience behind why yoga helps us feel more at ease within ourselves and within the world around us.

Introduction

Yoga can often be viewed as a pseudo-science in ‘modern’ society, fortunately research in the field of neuroscience now provides rigorous scientific evidence for how yoga actually changes our brain and nervous systems functioning.

In summary:

• Yoga increases GABA in the brain which blocks other neurotransmitters that cause us to feel anxious/stressed.

• Yoga helps us access our parasympathetic nervous system allowing us to feel at ease.

• Through neurogenesis yoga may decrease our brains response to stress and increase our perception of positive emotions.

• Yoga may help us rewire our 'simulation map' that generates our self perceptions.

• Yoga may enhance the structures of the brain that enable the mindfulness required to change our behaviours and responses.

Yogic practises increase GABA levels in the brain

To begin, Streeter et al, throughout a series of studies (2007, 2010, 2012, 2018 & 2020), found evidence that yogic practises increase GABA levels in the brain. Essentially, GABA is a neurotransmitter or very small molecule in the body that allows us to feel at ease. GABA literally blocks the other neurotransmitters that make us feel anxious, stressed or overly stimulated. Interestingly, Steeter et al (2020) suggests that GABA levels drop down over time so at least one yoga session per week is recommended to maintain an uplift in GABA.

Yoga practises increase parasympathetic drive

Streeter et al also found yoga practises help reinstate activity within the parasympathetic nervous system as our normal state (think feeling at ease, rest, recovery and social bonding) rather than our sympathetic nervous system (think ready for action/fight or flight response). The modern lifestyle does a good job of setting our sympathetic nervous system as our normal neutral state which leads many of us to miss out on feeling truly refreshed or at ease. Activating and toning the vagus nerve through specfic breathing methods, plays a key role in this.

Yoga can potentially enhance neurogenesis.

Neurogenesis means the birth of new brain pathways (neurons) in the brain. Neurogenesis occurs in 3 key areas;

The hippocampus (where memories are stored): Garner et al (2019) found that yoga intervention increased hippocampus density, and this is associated with decreased feelings of stress. Of note, many neurological diseases and long term stress are associated with a decrease in hippocampus density, probably due to sustained high levels of cortisol.

The olfactory bulb (where we register and process smell): Although no research has yet specifically looked at neurogenesis in the olfactory bulb related to yoga, it is interesting that Nasikagra Dristhi (nose tip gazing) is traditionally used in yoga (often to start a practise). The Bihar Yoga School (2002) state Nasikagra Dristhi is “an excellent technique for calming anger and disturbed states of mind”. From a neuroscience perspective the olfactory bulb has connections that wrap directly back and around the limbic system including the amygdala which processes fear and initiates our fight or flight response.

The amygdala (where fear is processed): Gotnik et al (2018), in a study of 3742 participants in Rotterdam, discovered long term yoga practises decreased the volume of the right amygdala which is associated with negative memories, aggression and stress a.k.a the drive to compete with others. Of note the left side of the amygdala is associated with our ability to remember positive emotions and empathise with others.

Interestingly, the participants who took part in more yoga and meditation practises actually reported higher levels of stress in everyday life; Gotnik et al suggest that this is actually due to greater awareness of their stress levels and that yoga and meditation practitioners are better able to access their left amygdala and so regulate their stress levels through positive emotions and empathy.

Two practical techniques for calming the amygdala’s fear responses noted by (Gotnik et al 2018) are breathing techniques which increase the length of the breath slowing down the breathing rate, for example soft ujjayi breathing, and also the mindfulness technique of labelling (and so acknowledging) emotions as they arise.

The role of BDNF in Neurogenesis

We should note that for neurogenesis to occur a substance called BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) needs to be present and higher levels of BDNF are desirable. For example, Naveen et al (2013) found that yoga intervention actually increased BDNF levels more than drugs alone in a sample of people with depression.

This does not mean ‘yoga’ is the only ‘miracle generator’ of BDNF since various other studies show different forms of exercise increase BDNF, however what this does suggest is that Yoga may require a movement based exercise component in order to be effective at generating BDNF.

Yoga and Mindfulness Practises May Allow us to Rewire our ‘Simulation Map’ of Self Perception

In a part of the brain called the insula there is a ‘simulation map’ which affects how we feel/perceive any given situation (Farb et al 2015). The ‘simulation map’ is a map of our own self-perception: We process actual physical and emotional experiences in the insula and come up with a ‘self perceived’ interpretation (simulation) of the event. The important thing here is that the insula’s simulation map is generated from all our past experiences, and so predisposes us to feeling/responding in a similar manner as before. Left to its own devices the insula may well ‘trap’ us in habitual behaviour.

So, the insula maps both physical and emotional experiences. The insula processes pain, pleasure, heat, cold, stretching, tensing, somatosensation (weight/texture of the body), heart rate, balance and emotion (Uddin et al 2017). However, the insula overlaps and blends physical and emotional experiences much more than we would commonly think during our everyday lives. Related to yoga this means that learning to stay with difficulty or discomfort in physical postures literally overlaps and also builds our ability to stay with difficult or uncomfortable emotional experiences. Likewise, learning to ‘find ease’ in varied challenging postures may also overlap, training us to ‘find ease’ in varied and challenging emotional situations.

From a neuroscience perspective there is still much to learn about the insula as it is very deep within the brain (Uddin et al 2017). However, it is very interesting that traditional yoga nidra techniques guide us to imagine and experience pairs of opposites. Note, above we said the insula perceives and maps heat and cold sensations. In yoga nidra there is a technique that asks us to imagine being very hot, then imagine being very cold and also cycle between them. Likewise, the insula maps how we feel the weight of the body, in yoga nidra there is also a technique that asks us to imagine feeling very heavy and then as light as a feather. From personal experience, with practise these pairs of opposites shift from pure imagination to actual physical experience.

What does all this mean practically?

Hart et al (2011), state that for becoming ‘liberated’ from behavioural responses and motivations that are based upon past experiences/conditioning (mapped in the insula), learning to directly experience one's stress response and also what triggers that stress response is vital. By cultivating the ability to stay with experiences in yoga and mindfulness, it is likely we develop the insights into our self that allow us to choose to act differently when faced with a potentially stressful situation.

Yoga prepares the prefrontal cortex for effective mindfulness!

To help understand the above we should briefly explore the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) and Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC), which together with the Insular form most of the front part of the brain.

Afonso et al (2017) found that yoga may well preserve and even increase the size of the prefrontal cortex which usually gets thinner as we age. Afonso et al studied 21 older female (60+) yoga practitioners who had practised hatha yoga at least twice a week for at least 14 years, and found that in comparison to matched control participants, numerous areas in their prefrontal cortex were significantly larger. This is interesting as the prefrontal cortex allows rational and reflective thinking that enables us to consciously adjust how we behave - ‘‘mindfulness’ occurs in the prefrontal cortex.

The anterior cingulate cortex helps keep our attention focused. In many mental health disorders and stressful situations the anterior cingulate cortex struggles to shift its attention away from the immediate, normally uncomfortable, experience. This is where training the mindfulness abilities of the prefrontal cortex comes into play as the prefrontal cortex can actively guide the anterior cingulate cortex to attend to a different experience.

The prefrontal cortex has direct pathways to the amygdala (where fear is processed). This is a two way relationship meaning; activity in the prefrontal cortex can mediate our feelings of stress and fear but likewise, activity in the amygdala can mediate our ability to think rationally and reflect upon situations.

For our yoga and mindfulness practises this suggests that the prefrontal cortex should first be well developed/trained (i.e. through yoga practises which also help weaken the amgydala’s fear response) before mindfulness (which uses the prefrontal cortex to regulate our attention and fear responses) becomes effective (The Minded Institute 2020).

References

Afonso et al (2017). Greater cortical thickness in elderly female yoga practitioners—a cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 9, pp. 201.

Farb et al (2015). Interoception, contemplative practice, and health. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, pp. 763.

Garner M, Reith W & Krick C (2019). 10- week hatha yoga increases right hippocampal density compared to active and passive control groups: a controlled structural cMRI study. Journal of Neuroimaging Psychiatry Neurology, 4 (1) pp.1-11.

Goleman, D. (2008). Destructive emotions: a scientific dialogue with the dalai lama. New York City, Bantam Books.

Gotink et al (2018). Meditation and yoga practice are associated with smaller right amygdala volume: the Rotterdam study. Brain Imaging and Behaviour, 12 pp.1631–1639.

Hart, W. (2011). The art of living: Vipassana meditation: as taught by SN Goenka. Onalaska, Pariyatti.

Naveen, G H et al (2013). Positive therapeutic and neurotropic effects of yoga in depression: A comparative study. Indian journal of psychiatry 55 (3) pp.400-404.

Streeter C, C et al (2007). Yoga asana sessions increase brain GABA levels: a pilot study. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, pp 419-426.

Streeter C, C et al (2010) Effects of yoga versus walking on mood, anxiety, and brain GABA levels: a randomized controlled MRS study. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16 (11) pp.1145-1152

Streeter C, C et al (2012). Effects of yoga on the autonomic nervous system, gamma-aminobutyric-acid, and allostasis in epilepsy, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Medical Hypotheses, 78 (5), pp 571 - 579.

Streeter C, C et al (2018). Effects of yoga on thalamic gamma-aminobutyric acid, mood and depression: analysis of two randomized controlled trials. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 8 (6).

Streeter C, C et al (2020).Thalamic gamma aminobutyric acid level changes in major depressive disorder after a 12-week iyengar yoga and coherent breathing intervention. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 26 (3) pp.190-197.

The Minded Institute (2020). Yoga therapy for anxiety: resource. As presented by Heather Mason. CPD course 15th-19th June 2021.

The Bihar Yoga School (2002). Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha. Author: Swami Satyananda Saraswati. Yoga Publications Trust, Mungar, Bihar, India.

Uddin et al (2017). Structure and function of the human insula. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 34 (4) pp.300-306.